Materials science and engineering, involves the discovery and design of new materials.  Many of the most pressing scientific problems humans currently face are due to the limitations of the materials that are available and, as a result, major breakthroughs in materials science are likely to affect the future of technology significantly. Materials scientists lay stress on understanding how the history of a material influences its structure, and thus its properties and performance. Material science plays an important role in metallurgy too. Powder metallurgy is a term covering a wide range of ways in which materials or components are made from metal powders. They can avoid, or greatly reduce, the need to use metal removal processes and can reduce the costs. Pyro metallurgy includes thermal treatment of minerals and metallurgical ores and concentrates to bring about physical and chemical transformations in the materials to enable recovery of valuable metals. A complete knowledge of metallurgy can help us to extract the metal in a more feasible way and can used to a wider range Extractive metallurgy is the practice of removing valuable metals from an ore and refining the extracted raw metals into a purer form. In order to convert a metal oxide or sulphide to a purer metal, the ore must be reduced physically, chemically, or electrolytically. Mining may not be necessary if the ore body and physical environment are conducive to leaching. Leaching dissolves minerals in an ore body and results in an enriched solution. The solution is collected and processed to extract valuable metals. Common engineering metals include aluminium, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium, nickel, titanium and zinc. These are most often used as alloys. Much effort has been placed on understanding the iron-carbon alloy system, which includes steels and cast irons.

Ultra-pure water contains by definition only H20, and H+ and OH- ions in equilibrium. Therefore, ultrapure water conductivity is about 0,054 us/cm at 25oC, also expressed as resistivity of 18, 3 MOhm. Ultrapure water production often has to be done in 2 steps. For example, from tap water or fresh groundwater, the water should first be demineralized by membrane filtration or ion exchange to reach the ultimate conductivity of 10 us/cm. The demineralized water is then processed through a high performance Mixed Bed or by Electrodionisation. Ultra-pure water is mainly used in the semiconductor and pharmaceutical industry. Because of the continuing miniaturilisation in the semiconductor industry, the specifications become stricter every year. Ultrapure water is also utilized in the production of flat panel displays and photovoltaic panels, and in the pharmaceutical industry, it is critical for injection and for cleaning process equipment. The power industry is yet another user, employing ultrapure water to serve as feed water for steam boilers. The pressure membrane technologies of microfiltration, ultrafiltration, Nano filtration and reverse osmosis are the most versatile and, hence, most widely used as the lynchpin of most ultrapure water production systems. In particular, membrane technologies possess certain properties that make them unique when compared to other water treatment technologies. These include:

â–  Continuous process, resulting in automatic and uninterrupted operation

â–  Low energy utilization involving neither phase nor temperature changes

â–  Modular design-no significant size limitations

â–  Minimal moving parts with low maintenance requirements

â–  No effect on form or chemistry of contaminants

Petro chemistry is an area of chemistry that studies the transformation of petroleum and natural gas into useful products and raw materials for chemical products. Main ingredients of this fossil raw material sources are especially aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, which are processed in petrochemical plants.  Over millions of years, natural changes in organic materials have produced petroleum which has accumulated under the earth’s surface. Petroleum rich areas are generally found in regions that support retention, such as porous sandstones. Crude oils are naturally occurring liquids made up of various hydrocarbon compounds that differ in appearance and composition. Average composition rates are 84% carbon, 14% hydrogen, 1%-3% sulphur, and less than 1% each of nitrogen, oxygen, metals and salts. Depending on the sulphur content crude oils are either categorized as sweet or sour. A process called fractional distillation separates crude oil into various segments. Fractions at the top have lower boiling points than fractions at the bottom. The bottom fractions are heavy, and are thus "cracked" into lighter and more useful products. The global demand for petrochemical products continuously rises .One of the major concerning issues in today's world is the dependence of the modern society on oil and gas and various other petroleum products. Besides this, there are problems relating to the increasing scarcity of workable hydrocarbon deposits.

Alkenes contain at least one double bond. Alkynes contain at least one triple bond. Most of these types of hydrocarbons can exist with the same chemical formula in different form or chemical structure. When a compound has the same chemical formula but two possible structures, these two structures are called isomers. Alkenes are unsaturated since they have a double covalent carbon bond. Alkenes have the general formula CnH2n. Alkynes (acetylenes) are unsaturated encyclical hydrocarbons which contain one or more triple bonds between atoms of carbon. The general formula for alkynes is CnH2n-2

Aromatic hydrocarbons contain the 6-membered benzene ring structure that is characterized by alternating double bonds. Thus, they have formulas that can be drawn as cyclic alkenes, making them unsaturated. Benzene, C6H6, is the simplest member of a large family of hydrocarbons, called aromatic hydrocarbons.  Aromatic compounds more readily undergo substitution reactions than addition reactions; replacement of one of the hydrogen atoms with another substituent will leave the delocalized double bonds intact.

While making potable water optimizing the performance of treatment chemicals and equipment’s can dramatically minimize costs and maximize return on investment helping to meet the most stringent water quality requirements. Raw water is natural water found in the environment and has not been treated, nor have any minerals, ions, particles or living organisms removed. Raw water includes rainwater, ground water, water from infiltration wells, and water from bodies like lakes and rivers. Treatment includes -

Reverse osmosis-Water molecules would spontaneously migrate through certain membranes that were separating a dilute solution from a concentrated solution. This phenomenon is called osmosis. They also noted that if pressure was added to the higher contaminant solution, this natural flow could be reversed. This reversal allows the contaminant solution to be concentrated further and allows purified water to be produced.

Conventional pre-treatment-Conventional treatment consists of the following unit processes: coagulation, flocculation, clarification, and filtration, and is typically followed by disinfection at full-scale. Ultrafiltration-A simple procedure called "low pressure" ultrafiltration permits the clarification and disinfection of water in a single step. A membrane barrier acts like a filter for all particles over 10-20 nm in size: pollen, algae, bacteria, viruses, germs and organic molecules.

Green water is caused by algae cells floating in the pond. If there is a lot of sunlight and your pond water is rich in nitrates algae will multiply rapidly. Green water is most effectively removed by using a UV Clarifier in conjunction with a filter, however sometimes you need to give things a boost by using an additional pond treatment. Algae are primitive plants that, via photosynthesis, combine water and carbon dioxide to form sugars for energy and growth. Algae produce oxygen, a useful by-product, but when sunlight is not available at night, they quickly respire. There are basically two types of pond algae:

Green Water: These single-celled organisms which remain suspended in water are so tiny, they pass through even the finest filter. If conditions are right, meaning there’s plenty of nutrients and sunlight, as many as five million algae cells per milliliter of pond water can be present. String Algae (also known as “hair algae”) this filamentous species, which grows in long strands, adheres to rocks and waterfalls. They eventually tangle together, forming thick, unsightly mats that can double their weight within 24 hours.

The following are some tried-and-true methods that will not only help you treat algae, but also help prevent it –Add plants ,Water Treatments, Fish Feeding, Green Water Control: Ultraviolet (UV) Clarifiers, String Algae Control: Garden Hose, Hand, or Net, Consider water dyes to help as they block direct UV rays coming from sun. By twirling it around a bamboo cane and hauling it out you can achieve some control and there are products that will help to get rid of it.

Water is used extensively as a highly efficient coolant in many commercial, manufacturing and industrial process activities where cooling is required.  The water treatment of cooling towers is an integral part of process operations in many industries, with the possibility of productivity and product quality being adversely affected by scale, corrosion, fouling and microbiological contamination. In general, a basic cooling tower water treatment system typically includes some type of:

1. Clarification

2. Filtration and/or ultrafiltration

3. Ion exchange/softening

4. Chemical feed

5. Automated monitoring

Cooling towers are used widely due to their optimal cooling technology for industrial processes and HVAC applications. Water shortages combined with increased water usage have combined to decrease the availability and increase the cost of high quality makeup water for cooling tower systems. The accumulation of microbiological slimes, biofilm and general bio-fouling in cooling water systems reduces system efficiency, increases operating and maintenance costs, and raises risks to safety and health. The detrimental impact of metallic corrosion can be a significant issue that affects the operation and maintenance of open and closed cooling water systems.

Industrial boilers and steam raising plant are used extensively in many commercial, manufacturing and industrial processes. The control of boiler water pH and alkalinity levels are important issue affecting the operation and maintenance of industrial boiler systems and steam raising plant. The treatment and conditioning of boiler feed water must satisfy three main objectives:

1. Continuous heat exchange

2. Corrosion protection

3. Production of high quality steam

External treatment is the reduction or removal of impurities from water outside the boiler. In general, external treatment is used when the amount of one or more of the feed water impurities is too high to be tolerated by the boiler system.

Internal treatment can constitute the unique treatment when boilers operate at low or moderate pressure, when large amounts of condensed steam are used for feed water, or when good quality raw water is available.

At the elevated temperatures and pressures within a boiler, water exhibits different physical and chemical properties than those observed at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. Chemicals may be added to maintain pH levels minimizing water solubility of boiler materials while allowing efficient action of other chemicals added to prevent foaming, to consume oxygen before it corrodes the boiler, to precipitate dissolved solids before they form scale on steam-generating surfaces, and to remove those precipitates from the vicinity of the steam-generating surfaces.

Hazardous waste is generated by all sectors of Irish society, from large industry, healthcare to small businesses, households and farms. The collection, treatment, and disposal of waste material that, when improperly handled, can cause substantial harm to human health and safety or to the environment. Hazardous wastes are classified on the basis of their biological, chemical, and physical properties. These properties generate materials that are toxic, reactive, ignitable, corrosive, infectious, or radioactive.  Toxic wastes are poisons, even in very small or trace amounts. They may have acute effects, causing death or violent illness, or they may have chronic effects, some are carcinogens causing cancer after many years of exposure. Reactive wastes are chemically unstable and react violently with air or water. They cause explosions or form toxic vapors. Infectious wastes include used bandages, hypodermic needles, and other materials from hospitals or biological research facilities. Radioactive wastes emit ionizing energy that can harm living organisms.

Hazardous waste is generally transported by truck over public highways. Only a very small amount is transported by rail, and almost none is moved by air or inland waterway. Hazardous waste can be treated by chemical, thermal, biological, and physical methods. Chemical methods include ion exchange, precipitation, oxidation and reduction, and neutralization. Among thermal methods is high-temperature incineration, which not only can detoxify certain organic wastes but also can destroy them. Special types of thermal equipment are used for burning waste in either solid, liquid, or sludge form. These include the fluidized-bed incinerator.

Osmosis is a natural phenomenon in which a solvent (usually water) passes through a semipermeable barrier from the side with lower solute concentration to the higher solute concentration side. To reverse the flow of water (solvent), a pressure difference greater than the osmotic pressure difference is applied as a result, separation of water from the solution occurs as pure water flows from the high concentration side to the low concentration side. Reverse osmosis membrane separations are, most importantly, governed by the properties of the membrane used in the process. These properties depend on the chemical nature of the membrane material (almost always a polymer) as well as its physical structure. Membranes occupy through a selective separation wall. Certain substances can pass through the membrane, while other substances are caught.

Membrane filtration can be used as an alternative for flocculation, sediment purification techniques, adsorption (sand filters and active carbon filters, ion exchangers), extraction and distillation. The choice of membrane depends upon the nature of the input of water and it is essential to be able to use the most suitable one in any particular set of circumstances.

It is the first process in the delivery of electricity to the consumers. Others processes include transmission, distribution, energy storage and recovery using pumped storage methods. Several fundamental methods exist to convert other forms of energy into electrical energy. The turboelectric, piezoelectric effect, and even direct capture of the energy of nuclear decay Betavoltaics are used in niche applications, as is direct conversion of heat to electric power in the thermoelectric effect. Electrochemistry is the direct transformation of chemical energy into electricity, as in a battery. The photovoltaic effect is the transformation of light into electrical energy, as in solar cells. Photovoltaic panels convert sunlight directly to electricity. There are mainly three conventional source of electric power generation, and they are thermal, hydel, and nuclear energy.

Thermal Power Generation- In thermal power plant coal or diesel is burnt to produce sufficient heat. This heat energy is utilized to produce high temperature and high pressure steam in the boiler. Hydel Power Generation- The water head is used to rotate the rotor shaft of an alternator. Water head can be naturally available or it can be created.

Nuclear Power Generation- In a nuclear power station, Uranium235 is subjected to nuclear fission. In fission process, U235 is bombarded by a beam of neutrons. The collision of neutrons with the nucleus of U235 creates huge heat energy along with other neutrons. These newly created neutrons are called fission neutrons which again hit by other U235nuclear and create mare heat energy and other fission neutrons.

The transition metals are the metallic elements that serve as a bridge, or transition, between the two sides of the table. They have partially filled d orbitals. The general properties of the transition elements are as follows 1. Metals 2. Almost all: HARD, STRONG, High m.p., b.p. 3. Conduct heat & electricity 4. Form Alloys 5. Show variable oxidation states 6. At least one of the ions & compounds coloured. 7. Form paramagnetic species because of partially filed shells. Most transition metals form more than one oxidation state. Transition metals demonstrate a wide range of chemical behaviours. Some transition metals are strong reducing agents, whereas others have very low reactivity. The most abundant transition element in the Earth’s solid crust is iron, which is fourth among all elements and second (to aluminium) among metals in crustal abundance. The elements titanium, manganese, zirconium, vanadium, and chromium also have abundances in excess of 100 grams (3.5 ounces) per ton. Some of the most important and useful transition elements have very low crustal abundances e.g., tungsten, platinum, gold, and silver.

Water is widely used in industry, whether it is encountered as raw water, process water or waste water. Industrial water use is closely linked to the economy of a country. As GDP increases, so will industrial water consumption. The industrial sector is the second highest user of water after agriculture. India’s annual fresh water withdrawals were about 500 billion cubic meters and the Indian industry consumed about 10 billion cubic meter of water as process water and 30 billion cubic meters as cooling water. Composition of natural waters changes constantly due to processes of oxidation and reduction, blending of waters with different compositions, temperature alterations, ion exchange, precipitation, bacterial self-purification, and other natural factors. Three main approaches may be indicated in development of water supply systems:

1. through flow

2. Circulating (closed type water supply)

3. Mixed

The first approach is characterized by great expenditure of fresh water and waste water is fully directed to the hydrographic system. This approach was typical of all manufacturing industry during the first half of the twentieth century and resulted in exhaustion of a number of water sources. The system of industrial water supply includes:

• Preparation of source water for use in technological processes;

• Collection and treatment of industrial wastewaters with the aim of purification and further utilization in water circulation systems or their disposal in the open hydrographic network;

• Industrial and drinking water supply.

Food manufacturing accounted for $738.5 billion (12.9 percent) of all U.S. manufacturing shipments in 2012, while beverages and tobacco products accounted for $142.5 billion (2.5 percent). Combined, these industries accounted for $881 billion (15.4 percent), forming the largest single industry within the manufacturing sector. Food and beverage producers are constantly looking for production optimization while achieving the highest levels of quality and compliance. The beverage manufacturing industry is made up of establishments that make either alcoholic or non-alcoholic beverages .The output of these industries is predominantly sold directly to consumers, so most people have an intuitive understanding of the processes and products associated with these manufacturers. Food and beverage producers are constantly looking for production optimization while achieving the highest levels of quality and compliance. Applications include Drinking water treatment, Boiler water treatment, Cooling water treatment, Ingredient water treatment, Corn wet milling, Gelatin Concentration, Juice processing, de-alcoholization, Whey protein concentration, Brine Clarification. It faces a confluence of challenges such as climate change, changes in food supply and demand, and imbalances in the governance of food production systems, food price volatility and food security.

Medicinal chemistry in its most common practice focusing on small organic molecules encompasses synthetic organic chemistry and aspects of natural products and computational chemistry in close combination with chemical biology, enzymology and structural biology, together aiming at the discovery and development of new therapeutic agents. This sector includes chemicals used in variety of industries such as selenium dioxide as oxidising agent in preparation of API's selenium sulphide for antidandruff shampoos, sodium selenite anhydrous and pentahydrate in animal feed formulations. Discovery is the identification of novel active chemical compounds, often called "hits", which are typically found by assay of compounds for a desired biological activity. Initial hits can come from repurposing existing agents towards a new pathologic process. Hit to lead and lead optimization. Chemical modifications can improve the recognition and binding geometries (pharmacophores) of the candidate compounds, and so their affinities for their targets, as well as improving the physicochemical properties of the molecule that underlie necessary pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamics (PK/PD), and toxicological profiles (stability toward metabolic degradation, lack of Geno- hepatic, and cardiac toxicities, etc.) such that the chemical compound or biologic is suitable for introduction into animal and human studies. The final synthetic chemistry stages involve the production of a lead compound in suitable quantity and quality to allow large scale animal testing, and then human clinical trials. This involves the optimization of the synthetic route for bulk industrial production, and discovery of the most suitable drug formulation. Industrial chemicals are used in researching and developing active drug substances and manufacturing bulk substances and finished pharmaceutical products. Organic and inorganic chemicals are raw materials, serving as reactants, reagents, catalysts and solvents. The use of industrial chemicals is determined by the specific manufacturing process and operations.

A clear trend exists towards diets that include more animal products such as fish, meat and dairy products, which in turn increase the demand for feed grains (FAO, 2007). There is also a growing use of agricultural products, particularly grains and oil crops, as bioenergy production feedstock. The role of agriculture in the process of development has been reappraised and re-valued from the point of view of its contribution to industrialization and its importance for harmonious development and political and economic stability. Agro-industry, i.e. the processing, preservation and preparation of agricultural production for intermediate and final consumption, performs a number of crucial functions that support development and poverty alleviation. It could cover a variety of industrial, manufacturing and processing activities based on agricultural raw materials as also activities and services that go as inputs to agriculture. There are a number of ways of classifying agro-based industries. Broadly these are classified as food and non-food industries. According to the International Standard Industrial Classification (ISIC) agro-industry consists of: -

· Food and beverages

· Tobacco products;

· Paper and wood products

· Textiles, footwear and apparel

· Lather products

· Rubber products.

Electrochemistry is defined as the branch of chemistry that examines the phenomena resulting from combined chemical and electrical effects that cause electrons to move. This movement of electrons is called electricity, which can be generated by movements of electrons from one element to another in a reaction known as an oxidation- reduction ("redox") reaction. A reaction is classified as oxidation or reduction depending on the direction of electron transfer. The principles of cells are used to make electrical batteries. In science and technology, a battery is a device that stores chemical energy and makes it available in an electrical form. Electrochemistry is also vital in a wide range of important technological applications. For example, batteries are important not only in storing energy for mobile devices and vehicles, but also for load levelling to enable the use of renewable energy conversion technologies. This field covers

Electrolytic processes - Reactions in which chemical changes occur on the passage of an electrical current.

Galvanic or voltaic processes: Chemical reactions that results in the production of electrical energy.

One of the most promising and well-developed environmental applications of nanotechnology has been in water remediation and treatment where different nanomaterials can help purify water through different mechanisms including adsorption of heavy metals and other pollutants, removal and inactivation of pathogens and transformation of toxic materials into less toxic compounds It highlights the uses of nanotechnology to purify water, including separation and reactive media for water filtration, as well as nanomaterial’s and nanoparticles for use in water bioremediation and disinfection. the most extensively studied nanomaterial, zero-valent metal nanoparticles (Ag, Fe, and Zn), metal oxide nanoparticles (TiO2, ZnO, and iron oxides), carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and nanocomposites are discussed:

1. Silver Nanoparticles-Silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) are highly toxic to microorganisms and thus have strong antibacterial effects against a wide range of microorganisms, including viruses, bacteria, and fungi. As a good antimicrobial agent, silver nanoparticles have been widely used for the disinfection of water.

2. Iron Nanoparticles-various zero-valent metal nanoparticles, such as Fe, Zn, Al, and Ni, in water pollution treatment have drawn wide research interest.  With a moderate standard reduction potential, Nano-zero-valent Fe or Zn holds good potential to act as reducing agents relative to many redox-labile contaminants. Therefore, zero-valent iron nanoparticles have been the most extensively studied zero-valent metal nanoparticles.

3. TiO2 Nanoparticles-Owing to its high photocatalytic activity, reasonable price, photo stability, and chemical and biological stability TiO2 is the most exceptional photocatalyst to date. The large band gap energy of TiO2 requires ultraviolet (UV) excitation to induce charge separation within the particles.

4. ZnO Nanoparticles-ZnO NPs are environment-friendly as they are compatible with organisms, which make them suitable for the treatment of water and wastewater. Besides, the photocatalytic capability of ZnO NPs is similar to that of TiO2 NPs because their band gap energies are almost the same.

\r\n Inorganic chemistry is the study of the structures, properties, and behaviours of all chemical compounds, except the myriad organic compounds and behaviour of inorganic and organometallic compounds. It is the study of the formation, synthesis and properties of chemical substances that do not having C-H bonds. Inorganic chemistry is related to other areas like materials sciences, mineralogy, thermodynamics, physical chemistry, spectroscopy, earth sciences and crystallography.

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A new paradigm has emerged for drug development and patient care. It is fusion of traditional and modern medicine or system or reductionist thinking. The difference between something personalized and participatory medicine. The truth is that modern medicine is desperately short of new treatments. It takes years for a new drug to get through the research and development pipeline to manufacture and the cost is enormous. Estimates suggest up to 80 per cent of the population has tried a therapy such as acupuncture or homeopathy and a survey conducted earlier this year found that 74 per cent of us medical students believe that western medicine would benefit by integrating traditional or alternative therapies and practices.  Example –Artemisinin, which is extracted from Artemisia Annua or Chinese sweet wormwood, is the basis for the most effective malaria drugs the world has ever seen. But making traditional medicine truly mainstream incorporating its knowledge into modern healthcare and ensuring it meets modern safety and efficacy standards is no easy task and is far from complete. There are many examples of traditional remedies used by people. Willow bark was used to treat headaches and fever. Quinine was used to treat malaria.

It deals with the separation, identification and quantification of chemical compounds. Chemical analyses can be qualitative, as in the identification of the chemical components in a sample, or quantitative, as in the determination of the amount of a certain component in the sample. The importance of it is due to its ability to check the quality of foods, drugs and other chemicals which we use in daily life. Most chemists routinely make qualitative and quantitative measurements. For this reason, some scientists suggest that analytical chemistry is not a separate branch of chemistry, but simply the application of chemical knowledge.1 In fact, you probably have performed quantitative and qualitative analyses in other chemistry courses.  Analytical chemistry as the application of chemical knowledge ignores the unique perspective that analytical chemists bring to the study of chemistry. The craft of analytical chemistry is not in performing a routine analysis on a routine sample, which more appropriately is called chemical analysis, but in improving established analytical methods, in extending existing analytical methods to new types of samples, and in developing new analytical methods for measuring chemical phenomena.  For example all the packed foods we buy, medicines, chemicals, cosmetics undergo thorough quality test before being released into market.

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There’s a reason the “organo” comes first in “organometallic chemistry”—our goal is usually the creation of new bonds in organic compounds. The metals tend to just be along for the ride (although their influence, obviously, is essential). And the fact is that you can do things with organometallic chemistry that you cannot do using straight-up organic chemistry. The term "metalorganics" usually refers to metal-containing compounds lacking direct metal-carbon bonds but which contain organic ligands like Metal beta-diketonates, alkoxides, and dialkylamides are representative members of this class. In addition to the traditional metals, lanthanides, actinides, and semimetals, elements such as boron, silicon, arsenic, and selenium are considered to form organometallic compounds, e.g. organoborane compounds such as triethylborane (Et3B). Many complexes feature coordination bonds between a metal and organic ligands. The organic ligands often bind the metal through a heteroatom such as oxygen or nitrogen, in which case such compounds are considered coordination compounds. Organometallic compounds undergo several important reactions:

1. Oxidative addition and reductive elimination

2.  Transmetalation

3.  Carbometalation

4. Hydrometalation

5 .Electron transfer

6. Beta-hydride elimination

7. Organometallic substitution reaction

 8. Carbon-hydrogen bond activation

9. Cyclometalation

10. Nucleophilic abstraction

Photochemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the chemical effects of light. For the industrial chemist, photochemistry is just one of the many means of producing chemical compounds or bringing them into reaction. However, it has some advantages over thermal, catalytic and other methods that immediately fascinate him. These include:

(1) Selective activation of individual reactants,

(2) Specific reactivity of electronically excited molecules,

(3) Low thermal load on the reaction system,

The main aim of preparative photochemistry is to reduce manufacturing costs for chemical products by introducing photochemical steps in the syntheses. Light-sensitive compounds have great technical significance in photography, reprography, and printing. Important applications have been also found in U.K.-curable paints, primers, and printing inks (4) exact control of radiation in terms of space, time and energy. Photo stabilizers are primarily used in plastics and man-made fibers. A Primary photochemical process of great theoretical and practical significance is luminescence. Photochemistry is an essential tool in both the manufacturing and the use of modern cars. Radiation curing is used as a very efficient, economically and ecologically attractive technology for the coating and bonding of many of the parts used in a car, and avoiding degradation of the coating due to photo induced processes during the foreseen service time is a key issue.

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Ultra-pure water contains by definition only H20, and H+ and OH- ions in equilibrium. Therefore, ultrapure water conductivity is about 0,054 us/cm at 25oC, also expressed as resistivity of 18, 3 MOhm. Ultrapure water production often has to be done in 2 steps. For example, from tap water or fresh groundwater, the water should first be demineralized by membrane filtration or ion exchange to reach the ultimate conductivity of 10 us/cm. The demineralized water is then processed through a high performance Mixed Bed or by Electrodionisation. Ultra-pure water is mainly used in the semiconductor and pharmaceutical industry. Because of the continuing miniaturilisation in the semiconductor industry, the specifications become stricter every year. Ultrapure water is also utilized in the production of flat panel displays and photovoltaic panels, and in the pharmaceutical industry, it is critical for injection and for cleaning process equipment. The power industry is yet another user, employing ultrapure water to serve as feed water for steam boilers. The pressure membrane technologies of microfiltration, ultrafiltration, Nano filtration and reverse osmosis are the most versatile and, hence, most widely used as the lynchpin of most ultrapure water production systems. In particular, membrane technologies possess certain properties that make them unique when compared to other water treatment technologies. These include:

â–  Continuous process, resulting in automatic and uninterrupted operation

â–  Low energy utilization involving neither phase nor temperature changes

â–  Modular design-no significant size limitations

â–  Minimal moving parts with low maintenance requirements

â–  No effect on form or chemistry of contaminants

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White Biotechnology can be regarded as Applied Bio catalysis, with enzymes and microorganisms, aiming at industrial production from bulk and fine chemicals to food and animal feed additives. Bio catalysis has many attractive features in the context of Green Chemistry: mild reaction conditions (physiological pH and temperature), environmentally compatible catalysts and solvent (often water) combined with high activities and chemo-, regio- and stereo selectivities in multifunctional molecules. White Biotechnology supports new applications of chemicals produced via biotechnology.  Environmental aspects of this interdisciplinary combination include: Use of renewable feedstock Optimization of biotechnological processes by means of: New "high performance" microorganisms On-line measurement of substrates and products in bioreactors Alternative product isolation, resulting in higher yields, and lower energy demand. The use of plant-based resources is one of the foundations of the concept of “green chemistry”. Many green chemistry processes make use of white biotechnology tools, and light will be shed on the importance of this technological synergy within the context of industry and factories in the future.  In fact, biotechnology is a way of using biomass or its waste material renewably to produce molecules with high added value for different applications, ranging from pharmaceuticals, agro-food, and cosmetics to plastics, materials and energy.

Petroleum geology is the study of origin, natural occurrence, movement, gathering and exploration of hydrocarbon fuels, especially oil or petroleum. Petroleum geology is a branch of stratigraphy that deals with the relationship between rock layers and the way they can move or shift. The movement of rock layers can affect the site of petroleum deposits,   well as the removal of the petroleum. The major disciplines of include Source rock analysis, Basin analysis, exploration stage, Appraisal Stage, Production stage, Reservoir Analysis. Petroleum geologists study and explore the oil deposits and oil production. Necessary parameters for polymer processing includes-

1. Flow or deformation

2. Transfer of heat and thermal behaviour

3. Transfer of mass

4. Chemical reaction

There are a variety of different processing methods used to convert resins into finished products. Some include: Extrusion Profile and Sheet extrusion, Pipe extrusion, Cast film extrusion, Blown film extrusion. Thermoforming is a method of manufacturing custom plastic enclosures by preheating a flat sheet of plastic and bringing it into contact with a mould whose shape it takes. This can be done by vacuum, pressure and or direct mechanical force.

The use of biopolymers could markedly increase as more durable versions are developed, and the cost to manufacture these bio-plastics continues to go fall. Bio plastics can replace conventional plastics in the field of their applications also and can be used in different sectors such as food packaging, plastic plates, cups, cutlery, plastic storage bags, storage containers or other plastic or composite materials items you are buying and therefore can help in making environment sustainable. Bio-based polymeric materials are closer to the reality of replacing conventional polymers than ever before. Nowadays, bio based polymers are commonly found in many applications from commodity to hi-tech applications due to advancement in biotechnology and public awareness

Biopolymers in Drug Delivery

Global Bio-based Market growth of Biopolymers

Biopolymers in Drug Delivery

Biopolymers in Marine Sources

Biopolymers from Renewable sources

Biopolymers in Stem Cell Technology

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The method by which a drug is delivered can have a significant effect on its efficacy. To minimize drug degradation and loss, to prevent harmful side-effects and to increase drug bioavailability and the fraction of the drug accumulated in the required zone, various drug delivery and drug targeting systems are currently under development. Attempts are being made to develop therapeutic proteins for cancer, hepatitis, and autoimmune conditions, but their clinical applications are limited, except in the cases of drugs based on erythropoietin, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, interferon-alpha, and antibodies, owing to problems with fundamental technologies for protein drug discovery. Technologies profiled include those used for biomarker and target discovery such as high throughput screening, signal transduction, micro array, RNAi, metabolomics, toxicogenomics, biosensors and nanotechnology. Colloidal drug carrier systems such as micelle solutions, vesicle and liquid crystal dispersions, as well as nanoparticle dispersions consisting of small particles of 10–400 nm diameter show great promise as drug delivery systems. Lead discovery includes -

1. Choosing disease and drug target

2. Identifying a bioassay

3. Finding a lead compound

4. Isolation and purification

5. Structure determination

6. SAR

7. Identification of pharmacophore

A desalination plant essentially separates saline water into two streams: one with a low concentration of dissolved salts (the fresh water stream) and the other containing the remaining dissolved salts (the concentrate or brine stream).  Water desalination processes separate dissolved salts and other minerals from water. Seawater desalination has the potential to reliably produce enough potable water to support large populations located near the coast. The most common desalination methods employ reverse-osmosis in which salt water is forced through a membrane that allows water molecules to pass but blocks the molecules of salt and other minerals.

 Thermal desalination uses heat, often waste heat from plants or refineries, to evaporate and condense water to purify it. The cost is very high and so it cannot be afforded by everyone who needs it, but because the desalinisation technology is improving fast, so the costs are beginning to fall, making it more affordable to countries and islands that need it.Desalination techniques are also being developed on a much smaller scale. Portable desalination kits are a prime example. Desalination is becoming more economically viable as the technology improves. Desalination plants can be provided in a wide range of outputs to cater for small isolated communities or to contribute substantially to water supplies for large cities and even for irrigation

\r\n Graphene is a thin layer of pure carbon; it is a single, tightly packed layer of carbon atoms that are bonded together in a hexagonal honeycomb lattice. In more complex terms, it is an allotrope of carbon in the structure of a plane of sp2 bonded atoms with a molecule bond length of 0.142 nanometres. Layers of graphene stacked on top of each other form graphite, with inter planar spacing of 0.335 nanometres.  Furthermore, the quality of the graphene that was separated by using this method was sufficiently high enough to create molecular electronic devices successfully. While this research is very highly regarded, the quality of the graphene produced will still be the limiting factor in technological applications. Once graphene can be produced on very thin pieces of metal or other arbitrary surfaces (of tens of nanometres thick) using chemical vapour disposition at low temperatures and then separated in a way that can control such impurities as ripples, doping levels and domain size whilst also controlling the number and relative crystallographic orientation of the graphene layers, then we will start to see graphene become more widely utilized as production techniques become more simplified and cost-effective.

\r\n Polymer science is an interdisciplinary area comprised of chemical, physical, engineering, processing and theoretical aspects. It also has enormous impact on contemporary materials science. Its goal is to provide the basis for the creation and characterization of polymeric materials and an understanding for structure/property relationships. Polymer science is of increasing importance for everyone's daily life. Many modern functional materials, gears, and devices have polymers as integral parts. Not surprisingly, roughly 30% of all scientists in the chemical industry work in the field of polymers.

The principal objective of wastewater treatment is generally to allow human and industrial effluents to be disposed of without danger to human health or unacceptable damage to the natural environment. The most appropriate wastewater treatment to be applied before effluent use in agriculture is that which will produce an effluent meeting the recommended microbiological and chemical quality guidelines both at low cost and with minimal operational and maintenance requirements. There are two wastewater treatment plants namely chemical or physical treatment plant, and biological wastewater treatment plant. Biological waste treatment plants use biological matter and bacteria to break down waste matter. Physical waste treatment plants use chemical reactions as well as physical processes to treat wastewater. The following is a step by step process of how wastewater is treated:

1. Wastewater Collection-Collection system is put in place by municipal administrations, to ensure waste water is collected and directed to a central point. This water is then directed to a treatment plant using underground drainage systems or by exhauster tracks owned and operated by business people.

2. Odor Control-Wastewater contains a lot of dirty substances that cause a foul smell over time.  All odor sources are contained and treated using chemicals to neutralize the foul smell producing elements.

3. Screening-Screening involves the removal of large objects for example nappies, cotton buds, plastics, diapers, rags, sanitary items, nappies, face wipes, broken bottles or bottle tops that in one way or another may damage the equipment.

4. Primary Treatment-his process involves the separation of macrobiotic solid matter from the wastewater.

5. Secondary Treatment-Also known as the activated sludge process, the secondary treatment stage involves adding seed sludge to the wastewater to ensure that is broken down further.

7. Tertiary treatment- The tertiary treatment stage has the ability to remove up to 99 percent of the impurities from the wastewater. This produces effluent water that is close to drinking water quality.

Renewable energy is energy that is generated from natural processes that are continuously replenished. This includes sunlight, geothermal heat, wind, tides, water, and various forms of biomass. This energy cannot be exhausted and is constantly renewed. Unlike natural gas and coal, we can't store up wind and sunshine to use whenever we need to make more electricity. If the wind doesn't blow or the sun hides behind clouds, there wouldn't be enough power for everyone.

Another reason we use fossil fuels like coal and natural gas is because they're cheaper. It costs more money to make electricity from wind, and most people aren't willing to pay more on their monthly utility bills. Renewable energy plays an important role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. When renewable energy sources are used, the demand for fossil fuels is reduced. Unlike fossil fuels, non-biomass renewable sources of energy (hydropower, geothermal, wind, and solar) do not directly emit greenhouse gases.

Materials science research signifies a new category of materials with its own logic of effect that cannot be described simply in terms of the usual categories of heavy and light or form, construction, and surface.  The materials like Salmon leather, Wood-Skin flexible wood panel material, Re Wall Naked board, Coe Lux lighting system, Bling Crete light-reflecting concrete and many other new novelties have created astonishing and unique characteristics of the materials. Coelux lightening system where the scientists used a thin coating of nanoparticles to precisely simulate sunlight through Earth’s atmosphere and the effect known as Rayleigh scattering. Soft materials are another emerging class of materials that includes gels, colloids, liquids, foams, and coatings.

Claytronics

Aerogels

Graphene

Conductive polymers

Meta materials

Fullerene

Chemical engineering is the branch of engineering that deals with chemical production and the manufacture of products through chemical processes. This includes designing equipment, systems and processes for refining raw materials and for mixing, compounding and processing chemicals to make valuable products. Chemical engineering involves managing plant processes and conditions to ensure optimal plant operation. Chemical reaction engineers construct models for reactor analysis and design using laboratory data and physical parameters, such as chemical thermodynamics, to solve problems and predict reactor performance.

Crystallography is the science that examines crystals, which can be found everywhere in nature from salt to snowflakes to gemstones. Crystallographers use the properties and inner structures of crystals to determine the arrangement of atoms and generate knowledge that is used by chemists, physicists, biologists, and others. Within the past century, crystallography has been a primary force in driving major advances in the detailed understanding of materials, synthetic chemistry, the understanding of basic principles of biological processes, genetics, and has contributed to major advances in the development of drugs for numerous diseases. Crystal growing specialists use a variety of techniques to produce crystalline forms of compounds for use in research or manufacturing. They may be experts in working with hard-to-crystallize materials, or they may grow crystals to exacting specifications for use in computer chips, solar cells, optical components, or pharmaceutical products.

Medicinal chemistry is a stimulating field as it links many scientific disciplines and allows for collaboration with other scientists in researching and developing new drugs. Themes include drug design, metabolism and toxicology with an understanding of synthetic organic chemistry. They also improve the processes by which existing pharmaceuticals are made. It deals with the facts of chemistry, pharmaco analysis and the chemical analysis of compounds in the form of like small organic molecules such as insulin glargine, erythropoietin, and others. The four processes involved when a drug is taken are absorption, distribution, metabolism and elimination or excretion (ADME). Drugs interact and bind to the binding sites through intermolecular bonds (ionic, h-bonds, van der Waals, Dipole- Dipole hydrophobic). The process how drug distribute and reach its target (ADME) and what will happen to the drug is pharmacokinetic. How the drugs interact with its target is known as pharmacodynamics. Careers in this field include -

1. Basic research into how various chemicals affect biological system

2. Drug development, including formulating drugs used to treat patients with diseases

3. Testing potential new bio-active compounds in patient populations

4.Developing guidelines for how new pharmaceuticals will be such as chemists at the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) who review new drug applications from pharmaceutical companies and the processes by which the substances are made.

\r\n Industrial chemistry continues with the progress in science and technology. It incorporates other arise disciplines such as biotechnology, microelectronics, and pharmacology and material science. It deals with physical and chemical processes towards the transformation of raw materials into products that are of useful to humanity. Chemicals or commodity chemicals are a broad chemical category including polymers, bulk petrochemicals and intermediates, other derivatives and basic industrials, inorganic chemicals, and fertilizers. Major industrial customers include rubber and plastic products, textiles, apparel, petroleum refining, pulp and paper, and primary metals.

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